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Attention Deficit Hyper activity Disorder agreeing to Singh (2002) is a developmental disorder that is brain based and most often affects children. This developmental disorder can be characterized as a disorder in which affects ones self control; customary aspects include strangeness with attention, impulse control, and activity levels commonly diagnosed prior to the age of 7yrs. Of age (Willoughby, 2003).
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There are primarily three sub-types of Adhd. Inattentive sub-type 1 is Adhd which those who manifest inattention without the nearnessy of hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). There is also Adhd sub-type 2 with symptomolgy related to hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). Ultimately there is Adhd combined sub-type (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). For the purpose of my paper, I will utilize facts that represents all subtypes in varied degrees and the affects of these difficulties upon the individual, educational, family, and public development as well as issues of public justice and cultural issues for those children who suffer from this disorder.
Historically the modern symptoms of Adhd were first identified (Barkley 1996, Rafalovich 2001, & Stubbe 2001), by English physician George Still in 1902 (Neufeld & Foy, 2006). Rafalovich (2001), explains that in a series of historical events from 1917-1918 in North America that led to an encephalitis outbreak there was a dramatic growth in research of characteristics that are similar to modern day Adhd symptomology. Through out the early years of research there was even research and investigations into curative conditions which promoted swelling in confident aspects of the brain, which many believe led to impulsivity and hyperactivity (Stubbe, 2000). As research evolved so did the diagnostic criteria for the disorder; shaping identifiable factors believed to contribute to the causation of Adhd (Barkley, 2005). Physiologically, there seems to be less dopamine and nor-epinephrine within the brains of those with Adhd and four genes that regulate dopamine have been identified as Adhd causal agents; however a definite causal agent has not been confirmed (Barkley, 2005). Brain activity is considerably lower in the pre-frontal lobe regions in those with Adhd and there is also decrease in blood flow (Hans, Henricksen & Bruhn, 1984), (Barkley, 2005). agreeing to Barkley (2005), psychological characteristics of Adhd are that it is about the "behavioral inhibition." These children do not benefit from what may happen later based upon what they do now; which can be compared to a "time near sightedness", (Barkley, 2005). They have strangeness identifying their past, preparation for the future, organizing, scheduling, and working independently, with public and occupational issues (Barkley, 2005). It is these difficulties when intermingled with the development of the personel that could clearly cause great difficulties especially when enrolled in formalized education and onward into the demands of school and adulthood.
The prevalence rates concerning the pathology of Adhd has been from ranges of 4 % to 18 % depending upon the community, types of populations, and areas of pathology (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). Adhd is one of the most coarse childhood disorders with 2.5 million children with this disorder (Barkley, 2005). Estimates show (Biederman, 1996), that nearly 6 % of boys and 1.5 % of girls have Adhd (Singh, 2002). It cost nearly 3.3 billion dollars to medically treat Adhd every year in the United States (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). Currently causation factors under consistent result up agreeing to Barkley (2005) include;
1. Genetics
2. Premature Birth
3. Traumatic Brain Injury
4. Spine and Brain Infections
5. Early exposure to substances while pregnancy
6. Early exposure to lead
7. Less blood flow and lower brain activity
Because Adhd is a representation of corporeal imperfections within the brain and undoubtedly manifests a decrease of activity in the pre-frontal lobe regions; confident treatment options with amphetamines, stimulants and non-amphetamines have been utilized to growth brain activity (Barkley, 2005). The size and anomalies within the brain have been verified and examined Through many technological processes such as Positron Emission Tomography and Mri scanning (Vance & Luk, 2000). Other corporeal abnormalities of development agreeing to Barkley (2005), include appearances of exiguous deformities including; longer than average index finger, third toe that is longer than second toe, ears that are slightly lower upon the head, no earlobes or a furrowed tongue. Up to 80% of children suffering with Adhd will continue to struggle with this disorder into adolescents and as many as 50 to 60 percent will continue to struggle into adulthood (Barkley, 2005). With the affects upon a child's school, family, and public environments a large emotional toll can be identified. Emotionally, children can feel isolated, angry, guilty, frustrated and many other emotions due to the disruption of relationships, opportunities and lack of clear decision production skills (Barkley, 2005). Many of these children can come to be depressed and exhibit anxiety (Barkley, 2005). Many affective behaviors include stubbornness, defiance and at times can be verbally or physically violent to others (Barkley, 2005).
According to Barkley (2005) nearly 57% of preschool children are likely to be rated as inattentive and over-reactive by their parents up to the age of four. As many as 40% agreeing to Barkley (2005), may have these problems for up to three to six months, concerning parents and teachers. agreeing to Lavigne, Gibbons, Christoffel, Rosenbaum and Binns (1996), however, it is estimated that 2% of preschool children truly meet the criteria for Adhd, and (Biederman, 1996), clarified that maybe 10 % of all children meet diagnostic criteria for Adhd (Singh, 2002). Barkley clearly indicates that the earlier the symptoms of Adhd appear and the length of time they last in childhood will rule the severity of its course and pathology (Barkley, 2005). Individually there are many distressing problems for children suffering from this disorder. Some features that Barkley (2005) indicate are important to identify as the personel child develops into school age include;
1. An emergence of high demanding ness of preschool age
2. Critical directive behavior by parents to operate circumstances
3. Problems reported by preschool / formal school staff concerning child's behavior
4. Problems with learning and reading
5. Decisions to hold a child an educational grade
6. Excessive temper tantrums / strangeness in getting child to do chores
7. Social exclusion from activities
According to Spira & Fischel (2005), within the pre-school environment at the age of 3 yrs. Old, children's attentiveness controls, and self operate mechanisms begin developing. Increased self operate and speech development continues from age 3yrs. Old (Spira & Fischel, 2005). Self operate processes continue to well build Through the age of 4yrs. Old (Spira & Fischel, 2005). These processes work together allowing the child to maintain self-control and Through 4 yrs. Of age the child develops the quality to direct attentiveness to relavent environmental stimuli (Spira & Fischel, 2005). Together, the maintaining of attentiveness and operate over responses emerges and of course is very important in identifying task's and working functionally within the educational environment, however; these processes indicated do not emerge for those with Adhd due to the manifestation of hyper-activity and impulsivity nearby the age of 3 to 4 yrs. Of age, and inattention manifesting near 5 to 6 yrs. Of age (Spira & Fischel, 2005). As children build into school age and adolescents, Barkley (2005) indicated that 30 to 50 percent of children will be retained one grade while their school years. agreeing to Vance & Luk (2000), 20 to 30 percent of children with Adhd will manifest comorbidity with learning disorders; reading, arithmetic, writing or spelling. If a child is diagnosed with Adhd and escort Disorder the percentages growth for a co morbid learning disorder (Vance & Luk, 2000). One theoretical position (Velting & Whitehurst, 1997), is that agreeing to Spira and Fischel, (2005) those children with Adhd do not derive the literacy skills considerable for early reading and learning. Furthermore, it is hypothesized that the discontentment due to lack of quality perpetuates acting out behaviors consistently witnessed by school staff of children with Adhd (Spira & Fischel, 2005).
As children move Through adolescents it is abundantly clear that with vast developmental changes; seeing ones role identity as clarified by Eric Erickson (Berger, 2006), relational dating, peer pressure, and other demands of adolescents come to be extraordinarily difficult with personel difficulties of impulsiveness, hyperactivity and inattentiveness (D. Moilanen Cmsw, Personal Communication, January 25, 2007). agreeing to Gordon (2006), adolescents continue to have many difficulties especially;
1. Disorganization
2. Planning long term assignments
3. Completing homework
4. Complying with parental rules.
5. Sustaining attentiveness and focus
Because adolescents are seeking to find a competent and salutary identity, conflicts with parental and schoraly systems can leave an teenage to feel diminished, angry and frustrated before the entry into adulthood (D. Moilanen Cmsw, Personal Communication, January 25, 2007).
Adulthood brings new challenges and agreeing to Jaffe, Benedictis, Segal & Segal, (2006), the following are just a few of the challenges for adults living with Adhd;
1. Managing money
2. "Zoning out in conversations"
3. Speaking without thinking
4. Procrastination
5. Becoming undoubtedly frustrated
Eric Erickson in Berger (2006) clarifies his principles of Psycho-Social development and indicates that as early adults we want to find intimacy or we will face isolation. It seems clear that these adults due to their disability will continue to confront difficulties with their families, public relationships, and negative personel perceptions onward into adulthood. These difficulties could place them at risk to come to be isolated.
The personel within their family is greatly impacted by this developmental disorder. agreeing to Barkley (2005) Adhd is 25 to 30% acquired by heredity, and if a parent has Adhd the child is 8 to 10 times more likely at acquiring the disorder. Barkley (2005) also indicated that parents at the starting of preschool attend and conduct their child fairly well, however; parents tend to lose what they feel as operate over their child the further the child develops Through school. Parents can feel drained, overwhelmed and exhausted; even feeling depressed, and begin blaming themselves for their child's behavior (Barkley, 2005). Over time these difficulties can lead to perceptions by parents that may be less than confident (Maniadaki, Sonuga, Kakouros, & Karaba, 2006).
Research shows that parental perceptions within the family can clearly have implications concerning how a child is treated and the negative affects and perceptions that affect the child's developmental stages (Maniadaki et al., 2006). agreeing to Maniadaki et al., (2006), parental perceptions do have considerable impact upon children suffering from Adhd due to the likelihood of the parents not obtaining reasoning condition services for their children; the strangeness parents had identifying the impact the child's behavior would have on the child's development; and the parents inability to identify the severity of the child's symptoms, all have dramatic affects on the child's developmental processes. Siblings can also have negative perceptions of the child's behavior, affecting the degree of hold siblings bring to each other within a family. agreeing to Gordon (2006), siblings can feel sorry for their sibling with Adhd or they can get angry and resentful. These reactions create dynamic challenges for any family and or personel dealing with Adhd. Other possible hindering perceptions by parents within the family principles can be identified by comparing Erickson's, Psycho public Developmental Perspectives (Berger, 2000). agreeing to Erickson, children from the age of 3 yrs. Old to 6 yrs. Of age will build Through a series of challenges to parents, taking the "initiative" or "failing," bringing feelings of "guilt" (Berger, 2000). When the child's appealing behavior takes place however, as Camparo, Christensen, Buhrmester & Hinshaw, (1994) states, that parents may not allow these children to have the benefit of the doubt, due to past excessive behavior under general circumstances, and the parents may see their child as an "easy target." agreeing to the evidence, miscalculating the child's natural appealing behavior could take place and disallow the child to build in a healthy, "guilt free" way, having considerable affects on their psycho-social development. excessive amounts of guilt can yield considerable amounts of anxiety and depression (Burns, 1990). These negative processes in variable degrees can clearly lead to negative affects on public and emotional processes (Burns, 1990).
Other family processes affecting Adhd and development agreeing to Peris & Hinshaw (2003), is that core symptoms of impulse operate and inattention are primarily heritable, and parental practices do not guarantee considerable (Barkley, 1998; Hinshaw 1994; Johnston & Mash, 2001), causation for Adhd. However, the family interaction patterns and external influences may have a considerable impact on severity and the developmental course of Adhd (Peris & Hinshaw, 2003). Furthermore, evidence suggests (Barkley, 1985; Battle & Lacey, 1972; Buhrmester, Camparo, Christensen, Gonsalez, & Hinshaw, 1992; Campbell, 1973; Cunningham & Barkley, 1979; MacDonald, 1988; Mash & Johnston, 1982; Tallmadge & Barkley, 1983) that mothers of Adhd children are less affectionate. Other disturbing findings indicate that parents can be more critically demanding and parents independently report a greater tendency to blame their Adhd child for problems they undoubtedly had with their spouses; thus proving further that family systemic patterns can play a major role in the perpetuation and affects of Adhd upon child development (Camparo et al., 1994). Of course these processes clearly affect a school-age child within their families and external systems in ways which sacrifice a child's self worth, confidence, and abilities to properly interact and function within their environment; proving this, Dumas & Pelletier (1999) indicated that pre-adolescents were found to have lower levels of self esteem in areas of schoraly competence, behavioral conduct, and public acceptance.
According to Barkley (2005), those with Adhd, at times do not give themselves time to evaluate their emotions objectively before a reaction, fail to separate their feelings from fact. Being able to internalize our emotions, evaluate them, and analyze them before displaying them publicly assist in self operate and is difficult for those suffering from Adhd (Barkley, 2005). Those who suffer from Adhd build a pattern of public rejection due to inappropriate interactions starting while formalized education agreeing to Barkley (2005). agreeing to Nixon (2001), those children suffering from Adhd lack considerable public skills that affect the quality of their interactions, such as; verbal & corporeal aggression, disruptive attempts to enter new groups, negative classroom behaviors, being quick tempered and violating the rules. Nixon (2001) presents more evidence that public cognition is clearly affected and children with Adhd can have great strangeness in production clear interpretations of their environmental interactions with others. These variables clearly lead to inhibited public contact, and a dysfunction in psycho-social development. agreeing to Eric Erickson in Berger (2000), he clearly indicates that formalized school age children from 7 to 11 years old need to build reliance that allow them to feel as if they have mastered "Industry" (Berger, 2000). If this stage is not mastered, they may feel inferior (Berger, 2000). How can these children who are excluded due to their Adhd manifestations of behavior, be given the opening to share and prove themselves to resist negative aspects of "Inferiority?" As these children build into adolescents and adults, one can reckon when comparing Adhd behavior and public reactions with the Erickson Psycho-Social Framework (Berger, 2000). Erickson states that adolescents endeavor to find their roles in the world and if they fail, role blurring develops (Berger, 2000). blurring for those suffering from Adhd would come undoubtedly due to their exclusion from public groups and activities (Barkley, 2005). In order for adolescents to find their role and their identity; they must interact with others and feel proper in their participation (Berger, 2000). further into adulthood Erickson in Berger (2000), indicates that as adult's, individuals will seek intimacy with others or come to be isolated. The factor of isolation relates to the extent in which those developing fear rejection and discontentment (Berger, 2000). Unfortunately, prior public experiences of those suffering from Adhd can be littered with public rejection, feelings of discontentment and unacceptance due to impulsiveness and hyperactive behaviors (Barkley, 2005). Furthermore, (Pope, Bierman, & Mumma, 1999), these authors agreeing to Nixon (2001), also claim that hyperactivity and the inattentive / teenage nature of a child's behavior with Adhd contributes greatly to interpersonal problems.
In regards to public justice and cultural issues; agreeing to Bender (2006), African American children may be under represented and under diagnosed in regards to Adhd. Experts such as (Dr. Rahn Bailey, 2006) agreeing to Bender (2006), claim that as science is pursuing new technological processes to diagnose and treat Adhd, cultures like the African American community are subjected to propaganda, suspicion due to past and current discrimination, and negative stereotyping concerning reasoning illness; thus forming cultural decisions to avoid pathology and treatment of Adhd. This cultural-lens, based upon discriminatory and fear based experiences with the dominant culture dis-allows ethical decisions to help and assist African American children (Bender, 2006). These decisions agreeing to experts (Bailey, 2006), is contributing to high rates of African American children disproportionately over represented in restorative programs and disproportionate amounts of African American children over represented in the criminal justice principles (Bender, 2006). The issues of classism and impoverishment can also be a topic of concern concerning those who suffer from Adhd. agreeing to Visser & Lesesne, (2005), Adhd pathology among males was reported significantly more often in families with incomes below the poverty threshold than in families with incomes at or above the poverty threshold. Here again, poverty makes a clear and consistent statement of risk for our developing children.
In conclusion, I believe that Adhd seems to be an elusive, devastating, developmental disorder. This disorder for my self is so destructive because of its manifesting elements of hyperactivity, impulsivity and inattentiveness. These variables are processes that if represented to confident degrees are excellent for destroying social, educational, emotional and personel development over the life span. Because our lives are so dependent upon not just our biological building but also our public and environmental interaction; this disorder can be serious and detrimentally disruptive. I do however believe that new technologies are hopeful in insight this disability in greater measures. I also have gained ideas concerning the new facts concerning neuro-plastisity and the changing mind based upon therapeutic thought. I feel this may be a possible frontier of research that should be a priority in better insight how the brain can change forms; especially the pre-frontal cortex regions.
L.J. Riley Jr. Bsw, Llmsw
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