The Evolution of Leadership: An academic Perspective - Nu Leadership Series

"Wealth in the new regime flows directly from innovation, not optimization; that is, wealth is not gained by perfecting the known, but by imperfectly seizing the unknown."
Kevin Kelly

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Let's focus closely on the modern development of leadership thought. According to Georgia Sorenson, author of An Intellectual History of Leadership Studies: The Role of James MacGregor Burns, the word "leader" first appeared in the 1300s and stemmed from the root leden, meaning "to travel" or "show the way." Leadership was defined five centuries later. Traditionally, managing both the technical and human components has posed problems for leaders for centuries.

Between 1945 and 1960, leadership scholars spent more of their attempt on empirical research; however, from the 1970s onward, this study became law driven. In developing strategies for this problem, researchers and practitioners have either adopted a "scientific" or "behavioral" approach. This fact is where the school of administration idea evolved. The school of administration provides a theoretical framework for learning leadership thought.

Over the decades, administration gurus have tried to establish and classify this large data related to management, and this is how the schools of administration idea started. We will discuss the following schools: (a) the classical school, (b) the behavioral school, (c) the quantitative or administration science school, (d) the systems school, and (e) the contingency school. Let's explore these schools more closely.

Era Snapshot:

The classical school idea began in the 1800s. During that time, over 90% of Americans lived rurally. Between 1870-1900s, rural areas doubled and urban areas tripled. With the transition from a rural to industrial society, leaders lacked a process to motivate the unskilled workforce.

Conversely, the industrial Revolution brought new jobs, mostly filled by immigrants. Although the Mid-19th Century America was a land of opportunity, workers were living in awful conditions while the industrial elites benefited. This period, then, created a host of new advances and new problems for organizational leaders.

Classical School

The classical school, which is the oldest formal school of administration thought, commonly focused on ways to administrate work and organizations more efficiently. It can be supplementary grouped into three areas which are scientific management, executive management, and bureaucratic management. We will briefly discuss these areas and the foremost advocates.

Scientific administration began in the 1880s. Previously, administration decisions were viewed as arbitrary, and workers operated at a slow pace. Scientific administration was advanced to create a systematic recipe to improve efficiency. The key proponents were Frederick W. Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, and Henry Gantt.

Administrative administration began in the 1940s. Unlike scientific management, executive administration focused largely on jobs and work at the individual level of analysis. It provided a more normal law of management. The key proponent was Henri Fayol.

Bureaucratic administration began in the 1920s. Earlier organizations were personality- and relationship-driven. A proposed form of club called bureaucratic administration was characterized by group of labor, hierarchy, formalized rules, impersonality, and the selection and promotion of employees based on ability. The key proponent was Max Weber.

Era Snapshot:

When the behavioral idea began in the 1930s, there was a global depression that brought an abrupt shift from the fun-loving lifestyles of the Roaring 20s. As Socialists proclaimed the death of capitalism, Adolf Hitler was rising to power in Germany.

Technology was still progressing as global transportation increased. Roosevelt's New Deal brought large governmental intervention into societal problems. Unfortunately, it was also the beginning of World War Ii in 1939.

Behavioral School

As a ensue of perceived weaknesses in the assumptions contained in the classical school, the behavioral school of administration idea was created. Some felt that the classical school emphasized efficiency while disregarding the aspect of human behavior in organizations.

The behavioral school focused on trying to understand the factors that affect human behavior at work. The behavioral school was two subgroups, human relations and behavior science.

Human Relations can be traced to the Hawthorne Experiments in 1924 and finished in the early 1930s. Two necessary discoveries from the Hawthorne Experiments were found: a) workers' attitudes are related with productivity and b) the workplace is a group law with informal group influences.

According to the human relation school, the owner should possess necessary skills for diagnosing the causes of human behavior at work so that he could effectively lead employees. Some of the best-known contributors consist of Mary Parker Follett, Chester Barnard, Abraham Maslow, and Elton Mayo. Today, this school has influenced administration law and institution in such areas as applied psychology.

Behavior Science emerged in the 1950s and 1960s. Behavior science was a natural progression of the human relations school of thought. It focused primarily on applying conceptual and analytical methods to the qoute of understanding and predicting human behavior in the workplace.

Some of the major contributors consist of Douglas McGregor, Frederick Herzberg, and Ralph Stogdill. This school has contributed to the study of administration by focusing on some areas such as personality, values, and leadership.

Era Snapshot:

When the quantitative idea began, it was a decade dominated by World War Ii, which was widely viewed as the most destructive war in history. This decade marked the transition duration Between the radical 1930s and the conservative 1950s.

One the economic front, the Marshall Plan, implemented by the Us, gave billions of dollars for reconstructing war-devastated economies. Technology was being designed for major destruction. The first nuclear bomb was created, which dramatically changed international relationships.

Quantitative School

This school emerged in the 1940s. The quantitative school objective was to growth the quality of managerial decision-making by applying mathematical and statistical approaches.

This school was derived from the scientific management. The quantitative school was in three subgroups: administration science, production, and operations management.

Management Science advanced During World War Ii as strategists tried to solve war related problems. administration Science utilizes mathematical and statistical approaches to solve administration problems.

Management data Systems and administration Science are interconnected. The key proponent was George Dantzig. Today, this approach is being used in industry. An example would be a decision reserve system.

Production and Operations Management

This school began in the 1940s. It focuses on doing and control of the output process. Its roots were similar to administration science because it resulted from the war. Operational administration targets productivity and quality of an organization.

The key proponent was W. Edward Deming. Some of the areas of study consist of computer integrated manufacturing and just-in-time inventory systems.

Era Snapshot:

When the systems idea began in the 1950s, the decade echoed the return of conservative values
and the return to the 1920s-type buyer society. The 1950s marked a rapid rise in the disagreement with the Eastern Bloc and the Soviet Union.

The Cold War generated the Arms Race, Space Race, McCarthyism, and the Korean War. It also marks
the return of the Gis and a baby boom. There was a high rate of unionization in industry and most of the technology supported the Cold War.

During this time, most of the earlier internal American problems such as women's proprietary and civil proprietary were now suppressed as Americans settled into suburban life; however, suppressing these group issues would have a necessary impact on the 20th Century.

Systems School

This school began to have a strong impact in the 1950s. The law school focused on understanding the club as an open law that transforms inputs into output.

Managing techniques that would allow managers to report distinct specialties and parts of the company to one other as well as external factors were used. In the systems theory, an club is defined as a law with objectives. The school is built on the works of Ludwid von Bertalanffy, a biologist.

Era Snapshot:

When the contingency idea began in the 1960s, the decade was a time of great group changes in the country. Many of the changes were reflective of the demographic changes brought by the baby boom generation, height of the Cold War, and dissolution of the European colonial empires.

The group revolution, civil proprietary movement, anti-War movements, human proprietary movement, and the Counterculture movement settled America in an unstable position. During this timeframe, protectionist, command, and mixed economies reached a peak.

Contingency School

This school began in 1960s. The contingency school focused on applying administration law and processes primarily dictated by each unique situation. In the contingency theory, a leader's quality to lead is contingent upon various situational factors. Its application has been on administration issues such as organizational design, job design, motivation, and leadership style.

A few of the major contributors are Fred Fiedler, Joan Woodward, and Paul Lawrence. The Contingency law states that the leader's quality to lead is contingent upon various situational factors.

Obviously, these schools made a necessary contribution to modern day management, and these early results provide a blueprint for the current leadership paradigms in organizations.

References:

Barnet, T. (n.d.). administration Thought. Received on February 15, 2006 from http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Log-Mar/Management-Thought.html.

Bass, B. (1999). Bass & Stogdill's Handbook of Leadership. New York, Ny: The Free Press.

Krooss, H. & Gilbert, C. (1972). American company history. Englewood Cliffs, Nj: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Northouse, P. (2004). Leadership law and Practice. Thousand Oaks, Ca: Sage Publications.

Sedl. (2006). History of leadership research. Received on February 10, 2006 from http://www.sedl.org/change/leadership/history.html.

Sorenson, G. (2002). An intellectual history of leadership studies: The role of james macGregor burns. American Political Science Association. 1-16.

Whitsett, D. & Yorks, L. (1995). From administration law to company sense. San Francisco, Ca: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Wikipedia. (2006). Received on February 16, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page.
Wren, D. (2005). The Evolution of administration Thought. Hooboken, Nj: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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supervision Vs. Leadership - An assessment of Interdependence

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Leadership and supervision have been the focus of study and attentiveness since the dawn of time. Over time leadership and supervision have been seen as separate entities, but those times have past. It is this paper's intent to prove that good supervision is incumbent upon the success and quality of the leadership that drives it, and by proxy, so too will poor leadership bring poor supervision that will lead to poor results, and decreased levels of success.

From the great minds in supervision theory: Fayol, Taylor, and Weber; homage being paid to Barnard and Mayo, as well as Maslow, Mintzberg, Drucker and Porter; to the great minds in leadership development: Jung, McClelland and Burnham, this paper intends to gawk them all and bring them together as is required in this cheaper and these times.

Much time, effort, and money has been settled into the study of both supervision and leadership successes. Mintzberg and Drucker have done some of the best and most informative work at bringing supervision and leadership together; now, with the rising costs of overhead and decreasing behalf margins, now is the time to associate the dots, once and for all.

Leadership and supervision have been the focus of study and attentiveness since the dawn of time. Reference biblical scripture that questions the leadership decisions of King David and the managerial prowess of Moses and his exodus to the "Promised Lands" (Cohen, 2007); Plato helped us to conduct the Republic while Machiavelli helped us to formulate our idea of what a Prince should laid out (Klosko, 1995); Shakespeare questioned Hamlet's decision production (Augustine & Adelman, 1999) and trumpeted Henry Iv's managerial effectiveness (Corrigan, 1999). John Stuart Mill gave us the "shining city upon a hill", while Hegel taught us the "elements of the doctrine of right" and Marx taught us how to conduct a population in his overly popularized (and oft misunderstood) manifestos (Klosko, 1995). Thomas Payne rewrote leadership to the basic levels of coarse Sense, while Thomas Jefferson acknowledged that in the supervision of a people, you must remember that "all men are created equal" and that they mouth certain degree of"unalienable Rights". Countless others have come to the covering over the span of time, all promoting a new or improved way to both conduct and lead their people. (And hopefully yours, too, if you're willing to pay for it.) However, straight through it all, one thing has remained constant; population are not autonomous entities that will answer the same to every situation. population are evolving, thinking, emotionally and socially aware of all that is around them; they are motivated straight through distinct methods and they are driven by differing levels of success (McClelland & Burnham, 1995). Over time, leadership and supervision have been seen as separate entities, but no more: it is, therefore, this paper's intent to prove that good supervision is incumbent upon the success and quality of the leadership that drives it, and by proxy, so too will poor leadership bring poor supervision that will lead to poor results, and decreased levels of success. In today's fast paced environments, supervision requires leadership; you cannot have one without the other and still attain the success that you desire.

Reference any supervision text or publication and you will inevitably come across the obligatory references to the great minds in supervision theory: Fayol - the first to identify supervision as a "discipline" to be studied (Brunsson, 2008), Taylor's scientific supervision of industrial work and workers (Safferstone, 2006), and Weber's bureaucracy; homage must also be paid to Barnard, Kotter, Bennis, and Mayo, as well as Maslow, Mintzberg, Drucker, and Porter (Lamond, 2005). These great minds have helped to forge the way for the supervision field and helped to better supervision teams across the world. The world of "leadership study" carries quite the similar pedigree; ironically, it also carries many of the same names. It is, however, this author's conception that many of the additions to the pool of knowledge on leadership were not made known until the study of science of mind was made more fashionable by the likes of Freud and Jung. Management, it appears, is a tool to better the bottom line and productivity, whereas leadership is one of those studies that is to be improved straight through the person's quality to be in touch with their personality, traits, motives and effects on the human elements of productivity.

There appears be some coincidence in the timing of the juxtaposition of the terms "management" and "leadership" and the correlation to the fact that most literature post 1950 seems to cross pollinate the two phrases. It is quite possible that this, the historical time for post war boom, is where production was at article highs and supervision of production was not as key as the supervision of population perhaps drawn from a communal recognition that population were not to be managed, but rather, they were to be valued members of the team, and therefore, to be led - it is speculative, but it appears obvious that entering the 1960's, most literature intertwines the "leaders" and the "managers" into the same professional classification.

Carl Jung (1923) posits that population carry definite traits and that those traits cannot be altered. However, much time exertion and money has been settled into the study of both supervision and leadership traits, tendencies, styles, and successes. Why is this? One trust is that Jung only half analyzes the someone and that more than your traits affect your leadership possible (de Charon, 2003). This affords the opening for you to learn skills vital to come to be a better leader, even if that means understanding who you are and what your tendencies are, in order to counteract them. Jung's work with personality traits has come to be the hallmark to virtually every professional development and personal development policy on the market. Jung stipulates that every someone has any mixture of sixteen distinct personality types. By definition, knowing these personality types helps you to better negotiate your way straight through the situation in order to attain the maximum production desired (Anastasi, 1998).

Running in concert to Jung's ideas are those of Henry Mintzberg. Mintzberg stipulates that much has changed since Fayol's estimation in 1916; gone are the days when the "picture of a employer was a reflective planner, organizer, leader, and controller" (Pavett & Lau, 1983). Mintzberg breaks the manager's job into ten roles, divided into three areas: interpersonal, informational, and decisional (2004):

Interpersonal Roles
Informational Roles
Decisional Roles
Figurehead
Monitor
Entrepreneur
Leader
Disseminator
Disturbance handler
Liaison
Spokesperson
Resource allocator
Negotiator
(Lussier & Achua, 2007).

Ironically, in today's interpretation of a leader, one would be hard pressed to find a leader whom is unable to do all of the above, and then some. Mintzberg, in later publications, however, goes much added in his estimation of managers and their roles in the organization. In a collaborative exertion with Jonathon Gosling, the two rule the five mindsets of a employer (2003). They break the five mindsets into:

1. Managing self: the reflective mindset; where the efficient employer is able to reflect upon the history (current and aged) to generate a better hereafter thoughprovoking forward.

2. Managing the organization: the analytical mindset; here referencing a tennis match, where the employer must be cognizant of the crowd and their reaction, but also focusing on the ball itself.

3. Managing context: the worldly mindset; thinking globally and looking for the unorthodox solution.

4. Managing relationships: the collaborative mindset; where the employer is able to engage the employees and moves beyond empowerment [which "implies that population who know the work best somehow receive the blessing of their managers to do it (Kibort, 2004)] into commitment.

5. Managing change: the activity mindset; "imagine your club as a chariot pulled by wild horses. These horses laid out the emotions, aspirations, and motives of all the population in the organization. holding a steady policy requires just as much skill in steering around to a new direction" (Gosling & Mintzberg, 2003, p. 54-63).

Gosling and Mintzberg halt with one very thoughprovoking point. They stipulate that, unlike Pavett & Lau (1983) that good managers are able to look beyond the desire to fix problems with simple reorganizations. In fact, they argue that hierarchy plays a very small role in the actual completion of tasks on the unit level and can only lead to more bureaucracy. Which leads one to ask the question: who is to faultless those unit level tasks and solve those problems related with people?

There is no definitive definition of what leadership is, as it appears to change form and focus for each personel study. For the purposes of this paper, however, the definition set forth by Lussier & Achua (2007) seems to fit best: "Leadership is the influencing process of leaders and followers to perform organizational objectives straight through change" (p.6). How do we compare leadership and management? The coarse misconception is that it is something that should be compared "straight up", or "even Steven". Obviously, there are natural leaders and persons in positions of communal authority throughout every facility, and yes, it is incumbent upon the managers and leaders to empower those population to support the thorough mission. Admittedly, some of these population may never come to be managers, but their role in the premise is of the utmost importance.

However, as managers are an industry definite entity, it is ridiculous to try and compare leadership to supervision covering of the constraint of the supervision role. Recognizing and accepting the constraint of the comparison, it must be acknowledged that in industry, you cannot have good leadership without good management; and in certain juxtaposition, poor leadership leads to poor success rates for the management. It seems apparent that our supervision staffs should concentrate on growing employees into leaders, to finally come to be managers; but if the managers themselves are not leaders yet, then much difficulties will soon befall upon that company. As Peter Drucker will tell you, it is imperative to build a strong supervision team, centered around strong leadership. In thinner times, gone are the days of two population for every position. Here are the days when a flourishing firm is able to package good managerial skills into every leader, and good leadership skills into every manager. Failure to do so will succeed in failure to succeed.

"Drucker devotes vital exertion and space to defining the nature and role of management. This discussion also focuses on the nature and value of leadership in the organization. According to Drucker, leadership gives the club meaning, defines and nurtures its central values, creates a sense of mission, and builds the systems and processes that lead to flourishing performance" (Wittmeyer, 2003).

References
Anastasi, Thomas (1998). Personality negotiating: disagreement without casualty. Boston University,
Boston, Ma: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Augustine, Norman & Adelman, Kenneth (1999). Shakespeare in charge: the bard's guide to

leading and succeeding on the firm stage. New York, Ny: Hyperion
Brunsson, K. (2008). Some Effects of Fayolism. International Studies of supervision &

Organization, 38(1), 30-47.
Cohen, Norman. (2007). Moses and the journey to leadership: classic lessons of effective

management from the Bible and today's leaders. Woodstock, Vt: Jewish Lights

Publishing.
Corrigan, Paul (1999). Shakespeare on management: leadership lessons for today's managers.
Dover, Nh: Kogan Page Limited.

de Charon, Linda. (2003). A transformational leadership development program: Jungian
psychological types in dynamic flux. club development Journal, 21(3), 9-18.
Gosling, J., & Mintzberg, H. (2003, November). The Five Minds of a Manager. (cover story).
Harvard firm Review, 81(11), 54-63
Jung, Carl (1923) science of mind Types. New York, Ny: Harcourt Press
Kibort, Phillip M (2004). supervision vs. Leadership. Physician Executive, 30(6), 32-35.
Klosko, George (1995). History of political theory: an introduction. Volume Ii; modern political

theory. Belmont, Ca: Wadsworth Group / Thomson Learning.
Lamond, David. (2005) On the value of supervision history: thoughprovoking the past to understand

the present and tip off the future. supervision Decision, incorporating the Journal of
Management History, 43, 10.
Lussier, Robert N. & Achua, Christopher F. (2007). Leadership: Theory, application, & skill

development, 3e. Mason, Oh: Thomson Higher Education.
McClelland D. & Burnham, D. H. (1995) Power is the great motivator. Harvard firm
Review, January, 81(1), p117-126.
Mintzberg, H. (2004, August). Leadership and supervision development: An afterword.

Academy of supervision Executive, 18(3), 140-142.
Pavett, C., & Lau, A. (1983, March). Managerial work: The affect of hierarchical level and

functional specialty. Academy of supervision Journal, 26(1), 170-177
Safferstone, Mark J. (2006). Organizational Leadership: classic Works and Contemporary

Perspectives.
Wittmeyer, C. (2003, August). The institution of Management: classic Views and Principles.

Academy of supervision Executive, 17(3), 13-15

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